President Clintons Essay Example for Free

President Clintons Essay DeMan (1988) argued that most of the problems and hindrances to Implementing GIS in the earlier days of this technology are rooted in organisational and not technical. Understanding the organisation within which GIS are to function is fundamental to understanding the challenges of development and implementation. (Peuquet and Bacastow 1991) Peuquet and Bacastow (1991) examined the U. S. Armys digital topographic support systems (DTSS). The issues looked into were the organisational context, the elements of the development, history of the system, the recognition of some fundamental factors that had frustrated the development of DTSS. What they discovered were: For Organisational commitment to change- effective organisation of GIS needs not only people able to employ the technology but also people willing to employ the technology. The willingness depends on both the individuals and the organisation, this to overcome the long and pervasive resistance to innovation within both government and business (Morrison1966) Development of GISs is a mutual efforts- Management at all levels, as well as the prospective end-user must actively be involved through all the phases of the development process. A true appropriate functional requirement can only be derived with the detailed knowledge of the organisation uniquely possessed by those within the organisation. Sahay and Walsham (1996) identify factors and conditions under which GIS implementation is impeded or enabled, which they term as inhibiting and enabling factors respectively. INHIBITING FACTORS Data: This relates to its availability on appropriate scales, usability problems because of the over dependence on remotely-sensed data, quality problems due to maps being outdated, and non-standardised format of data that are not supported by standard software. Manpower: reflects an acute shortage of trained manpower that has the ability to understand and use GIS, and the general lack of awareness of GIS, especially among the planners. The dominance of GIS technocrats contributes to organisational issues being made subservient to technical concerns during implementation. Structure: relates to decision-making styles and the forms of developing country organisations decision-making (normal central), left to officials with inadequate knowledge about the technology and are responsible for taking critical decisions related to implementation. The sect oral form of organisation, the lack of appropriate policies to enable co-ordination, often leads to duplication of efforts. Financial: proves constraints in acquiring and maintaining GIS systems, also restricts the development and maintenance of training and research programmes . It is discovered that finding of a GIS project often comes as a pat of an aid package and the long times involvement in implementing GIS makes it difficult to provide sustained funding. ENABLING FACTORS Approaches: development of approaches that provides sustenance and by developing local expertise that would take over from the expatriates. Practices: development practices that smoothen transition of people from their existing ways of doing work to using GIS. For example enabling users to receive prior exposure to mapping systems and allowing systems development to take place in an incremental and evolving manner. Institutional Mechanisms: appropriate policy level initiatives around GIS . For example private companies and international aid agencies to aid in establishment of national level GIS institutions that would contribute to the development of local expertise. Sahay and Walsham (1996) basing their research of implementation of GIS in India, on the theoretical framework for their work was developed, using the concept social context of social context and processes, implementation and the linkages between context and process. Based on current thinking in IS implementation research (Walsham 1993). The Social context refers to conditions which are antecedent or given to the process for example the national culture of the country in which the system is being implemented. Implementation Process: this includes the adoption of decisions installation of apiece of hardware, acquisition, utilisation, acceptance or rejection of the GIS within the organisational context. Linkage between context and process: understanding of the interaction between the two. The social context may both enable and constraint the implementation process to evolve in certain ways, which can reinforce or reshape the existing, conditions. 5. 5. 2 PUBLIC ACCESS TO GEOGRAPHIC DATA In Europe, a European commission Directives of April 1990) required that all official agencies of all members states must make available all their environmental holdings of information to the general public a t reasonable cost (CEC1990). It is argued that it is not clear what constitutes environmental information, but certainly topographical information would seen to be a necessary part. Nor is it clear what constitutes reasonable cost except in so far as some organisation in any country should expect to Price its products in this category much more highly than other organisations in the same country or in others within the European Community. Geographical data and information is derived by aggregation to areas from bureaucratically compiled records pertaining to individuals, however some geographical data are not in aggregate form and their supply to a third party may then transgress regulations on privacy. However legislation on privacy constraints the uses to which such data may be put only when it is held in computer form. It is accepted generally that access to some geographical data may not be appropriate for example data created for military purposes. Many countries show immense differences in practice currently exist in data dissemination and policies. Many of the European countries are inclined to recoup as much as possible while U. S. A. Sees that almost free provision of federal government data as an entitlement of the citizen and as a precaution against the garnering of power by cliques through their sole access to information It seems no one has yet found a logical basis for charging for the use of topographic data. The price elasticity of geographical information is limited, especially where competitive products exist and except where the use of official products is required by statute. It is note that the development of brokering and legal advice services for geographical data seems very probable and this is likely to flourish on a national basis. NATIONAL SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURES Government agencies are involved as main external providers of geographical information for most operational applications of GIS, they also exert a profound influence on national developments which resulted in a phenomenon, Rhind (1996,1998) called a cocktail of laws, policies, conventions and precedents, which determines the availability and price of spatial data (Masser 1999). Traced back to the mid 60s the trend in which many governments throughout the world began to think more strategically about information needs, data collection, and the resources needed to deliver information to a wider markets; the potential of computer, cased surveying and mapping systems for creating multi-user, multi-purpose databases for the public administration was recognised. This vision was lost in the 70s and early 80s as the emphasis of how as spatial information systems were implemented for a wide variety of purposes within traditional institutional frameworks. (McLaughlin 1991 cited in masser1999). Later the focus shifted back to matters of geographical information and its use in society in the late 80s. TableI: the first generation of national data infrastructures. The table shows titles of some countries national initiatives, even though the terms used very from country to country three elements are of common: They are explicit national in nature; Refer to geographic information, spatial data, geospatial data, or in one case, to land information; Refer to terms such as infrastructure, system or framework, which imply the existence of some form of co-ordination mechanism for policy formulation and implementation purposes. They are term the first generation of national spatial data infrastructures (NSDI) These first generation NSDI have differences in terms of geography, levels of economic development and systems of government. DRIVING FORCES TO ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURES Masser (1999) argues that two basic themes underlie these national spatial data infrastructures which are: growing importance of geographical information in the coming age of digital technology; and need from some form of government intervention to co-ordinate data acquisition and availability, Reports of the interest of some chief executives on these themes are: President Clintons Executive order for the National spatial data Infrastructure: Geographic information is critical to promote economic development, Improve our stewardship of natural resources and to protect the environment. Modern technology now permits improved acquisition, distribution, and utilisation of geographic (or geospatial) data and Mapping . (Executive office of the president 1994)